The Commonwealth of Nations, normally referred to as the Commonwealth and previously as the British Commonwealth, is an intergovernmental organisation An intergovernmental organization, sometimes rendered as an international governmental organization and both abbreviated as IGO, is an organization composed primarily of sovereign states , or of other intergovernmental organizations. Intergovernmental organizations are often called international organizations, although that term may also include of fifty-four The Commonwealth of Nations is a voluntary association of 54 independent sovereign states . Most are former British colonies, or dependencies of these colonies. No one government in the Commonwealth exercises power over the others, as in a political union. Rather, the relationship is one of an international organisation through which countries independent member states A member state is a member of an international organisation such as the United Nations or the European Union. All but two of these countries were formerly part of the British Empire The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom, that had originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a.

The member states co-operate within a framework of common values and goals as outlined in the Singapore Declaration The Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles was a declaration issued by the assembled Heads of Government of the Commonwealth of Nations, setting out the core political values that would form the main part of the Commonwealth's membership criteria. The Declaration was issued in Singapore on 22 January 1971 at the conclusion of the first.[1] These include the promotion of democracy Democracy is a political form of government where governing power is derived from the people, either by direct referendum or by means of elected representatives of the people (representative democracy). The term comes from the Greek: δημοκρατία - (dēmokratía) "rule of the people", which was coined from δῆμος (dêmos) &, human rights Human rights are "rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled." Proponents of the concept usually assert that everyone is endowed with certain entitlements merely by reason of being human, good governance Good governance is an indeterminate term used in development literature to describe how public institutions conduct public affairs and manage public resources in order to guarantee the realization of human rights. Governance describes "the process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented ". The term, the rule of law While the rule of law has been described as "an exceedingly elusive notion" giving rise to a "rampant divergence of understandings", a dichotomy can be identified between two principal conceptions of the rule of law: a formalist or "thin" and a substantive or "thick" definition of the rule of law. Formalist, individual liberty Liberty is a concept of political philosophy and identifies the condition in which an individual has the right to act according to his or her own will. In feudal times, a liberty was an area of allodial land in which regalian rights had been waived, egalitarianism Egalitarianism , is a trend of thought that favors equality of some sort. Its general premise is that people should be treated as equals on certain dimensions such as religiously, politically, economically, socially, or culturally. Egalitarian doctrines maintain that all human persons are equal in fundamental worth or moral status. So far as the, free trade Free trade is a system of trade policy that allows traders to act and or transact without interference from government. According to the law of comparative advantage the policy permits trading partners mutual gains from trade of goods and services, multilateralism Most[citation needed] international organizations, such as the United Nations and the World Trade Organization are multilateral in nature. The main proponents of multilateralism have traditionally been the middle powers such as Canada, Australia, Switzerland, the Benelux countries and the Nordic countries. Larger states often act unilaterally, and world peace World peace is an ideal of freedom, peace, and happiness among and within all nations and/or peoples. World peace is a Utopian idea of planetary non-violence by which nations willingly cooperate, either voluntarily or by virtue of a system of governance that prevents warfare. Although the term is sometimes used to refer to a cessation of all.[2] The Commonwealth is not a political union A political union is a type of state which is composed of or created out of smaller states. Unlike a personal union, the individual states share a common government and the union is recognized internationally as a single political entity. A political union may also be called a legislative union or state union, but an intergovernmental organisation through which countries with diverse social, political and economic backgrounds are regarded as equal in status.

Its activities are carried out through the permanent Commonwealth Secretariat The Commonwealth Secretariat is the main intergovernmental agency and central institution of the Commonwealth of Nations. It is responsible for facilitating cooperation between members; organising meetings, including the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings ; assisting and advising on policy development; and providing assistance to countries, headed by the Secretary-General The Commonwealth Secretary-General is the head of the Commonwealth Secretariat, the central body which has served the Commonwealth of Nations since its establishment in 1965, and responsible for representing the Commonwealth publicly. The Commonwealth Secretary-General should not be confused with the Head of the Commonwealth, who is currently, and biennial Meetings The Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, abbreviated to CHOGM, is a biennial summit meeting of the heads of government from all Commonwealth nations. Every two years the meeting is held in a different member state, and is chaired by that nation's respective Prime Minister or President, who becomes the Commonwealth Chairperson-in-Office between Commonwealth Heads of Government. The symbol of their free association is the Head of the Commonwealth The Head of the Commonwealth heads the Commonwealth of Nations, an intergovernmental organisation which currently comprises 54 sovereign states. The first Head of the Commonwealth was King George VI, the British monarch who was also head of state of many states and territories within the British Empire, which is a ceremonial position currently held by Queen Elizabeth II Elizabeth II is the queen regnant of 16 independent sovereign states known as the Commonwealth realms, listed here in order of length of possession by the Crown: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Barbados, the Bahamas, Grenada, Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Tuvalu, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines,. Elizabeth II is also monarch, separately and independently, of sixteen Commonwealth members, which are known as the "Commonwealth realms A Commonwealth realm is a sovereign state within the Commonwealth of Nations that has Elizabeth II as its monarch. The sixteen current realms have a combined land area of 18.8 million km² , and a population of 134 million; all but about two million live in the six most populous states, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Papua New Guinea, New".

The Commonwealth is a forum for a number of non-governmental organisations A non-governmental organization is a legally constituted, non-governmental organization created by natural or legal persons with no participation or representation of any government. In the cases in which NGOs are funded totally or partially by governments, the NGO maintains its non-governmental status by excluding government representatives from, collectively known as the Commonwealth Family The Commonwealth Family is a network of associations, organisations, and charities affiliated to the Commonwealth of Nations. Although associated with the Commonwealth, they are not fully a part of it, and membership is on a voluntary basis from within the membership of the Commonwealth. They are designed to advance the principles and policies of, which are fostered through the intergovernmental Commonwealth Foundation The Commonwealth Foundation is an intergovernmental organisation that was established by the Commonwealth Heads of Government in 1965, the same year as its sister organisation, the Commonwealth Secretariat. The Foundation is located at Marlborough House in London, a former royal palace which was assigned for the use of these Commonwealth. The Commonwealth Games The Commonwealth Games is a multinational, multi-sport event which features competitions involving thousands of elite athletes from members of the Commonwealth of Nations. Organised every four years, they are the third-largest multi-sport event in the world, after the Summer Olympic Games and the Asian Games, the Commonwealth's most visible activity,[3] are a product of one of these organisations. These organisations strengthen the shared culture of the Commonwealth, which extends through common sports,[4] literary heritage, and political and legal practices. Due to this, Commonwealth countries are not considered to be "foreign" to one another.[5]

Contents

History

Origins

The prime ministers of five members of the Commonwealth at the 1944 Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference The Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting, abbreviated to CHOGM, is a biennial summit meeting of the heads of government from all Commonwealth nations. Every two years the meeting is held in a different member state, and is chaired by that nation's respective Prime Minister or President, who becomes the Commonwealth Chairperson-in-Office.

While not all current members were once British colonies, the Commonwealth is generally considered to be the successor to the British Empire The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom, that had originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for over a. In 1884, while visiting Australia, Lord Rosebery Archibald Philip Primrose, 5th Earl of Rosebery, KG, PC was a British Liberal statesman and Prime Minister, also known as Archibald Primrose (1847–1851) and Lord Dalmeny (1851–1868) described the changing British Empire, as some of its colonies became more independent, as a "Commonwealth of Nations".[6]

Conferences of British and colonial Prime Ministers A prime minister is the most senior minister of cabinet in the executive branch of government in a parliamentary system. The position is usually held by, but need not always be held by, a politician. In many systems, the prime minister selects and can dismiss other members of the cabinet, and allocates posts to members within the Government. In had occurred periodically since 1887, leading to the creation of the Imperial Conferences Imperial Conferences were periodic gatherings of government leaders from the self-governing colonies and dominions of the British Empire between 1887 and 1937, before the establishment of regular Meetings of Commonwealth Prime Ministers in 1944. They were held in 1887, 1894, 1897, 1902, 1907, 1911, 1921, 1923, 1926, 1930 and 1937 in 1911.[7] The formal organisation Formal organization is a fixed set of rules of intra-organization procedures and structures. As such, it is usually set out in writing, with a language of rules that ostensibly leave little discretion for interpretation. In some societies and in some organization, such rules may be strictly followed; in others, they may be little more than an of the Commonwealth developed from the Imperial Conferences Imperial Conferences were periodic gatherings of government leaders from the self-governing colonies and dominions of the British Empire between 1887 and 1937, before the establishment of regular Meetings of Commonwealth Prime Ministers in 1944. They were held in 1887, 1894, 1897, 1902, 1907, 1911, 1921, 1923, 1926, 1930 and 1937, where the independence of the self-governing colonies A self-governing colony is a colony with an elected legislature, in which politicians are able to make most decisions without reference to the colonial power with formal or nominal control of the colony. In almost all cases self-governing colonies have responsible government and especially of dominions A dominion, often Dominion, refers to one of a group of semi-autonomous polities that were nominally under British sovereignty, constituting the British Empire and British Commonwealth, from the late 19th century. They have included Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Newfoundland, South Africa, and the Irish Free State. After 1948, the term was used was recognised. The Irish Oath of Allegiance The Irish Oath of Allegiance was a controversial provision in the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which Irish TDs and Senators were required to take, in order to take their seats in Dáil Éireann (The Chamber of Deputies) and Seanad Éireann (the Irish Senate), agreed in 1921, included the Irish Free State The Irish Free State (1922 – 1937) was the state established as a Dominion on 6 December 1922 under the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed by the British government and Irish representatives exactly twelve months beforehand. On the day the Irish Free State was established, it comprised the entire island of Ireland, but Northern Ireland almost's "adherence to and membership of the group of nations forming the British Commonwealth of Nations". In the Balfour Declaration The Balfour Declaration of 1926, a report resulting from the 1926 Imperial Conference of British Empire leaders in London, was named after the British statesman Arthur Balfour, first Earl of Balfour, Lord President of the Council and a previous Prime Minister of the United Kingdom. It states, of the United Kingdom and the Dominions: at the 1926 Imperial Conference, Britain and its dominions agreed they were "equal in status, in no way subordinate one to another in any aspect of their domestic or external affairs, though united by common allegiance to the Crown, and freely associated as members of the British Commonwealth of Nations". These aspects to the relationship were eventually formalised by the Statute of Westminster The Statute of Westminster 1931 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom which established legislative equality for the self-governing dominions of the British Empire and the United Kingdom, with a few residual exceptions, notably excluding India. The Statute remains domestic law within each of the other Commonwealth realms, to the extent in 1931. Australia, New Zealand, and Newfoundland had to ratify the statute for it to take effect— which Newfoundland never did. Australia and New Zealand did in 1942 and 1947 respectively.

Remaining members gain independence

After World War II Albania · Australia · Austria · Azerbaijan · Belarus · Belgium · Brazil · Bulgaria · Burma · Cambodia · Canada · Ceylon (Sri Lanka) · Channel Islands · China · Czechoslovakia · Denmark · Dutch East Indies · Egypt · Estonia · Finland · France · Germany · Gibraltar · Greece · Greenland · Hong Kong · Hungary · Iceland ·, the British Empire was gradually dismantled to just 14 remaining British overseas territories The British Overseas Territories are fourteen territories of the United Kingdom, which do not form part of the United Kingdom itself. They are the remnants of the British Empire that have not acquired independence or have voted to remain British territories, still held by the United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland[note 7] is a sovereign state located off the northwestern coast of continental Europe. It is an island country, spanning an archipelago including Great Britain, the northeastern part of the island of Ireland, and many small islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK with a land today, partly owing to the rise of independence movements in the subject territories and partly owing to both the British Government's straitened circumstances resulting from the cost of the war and a progressive domestic movement to decolonise. In April 1949, following the London Declaration The London Declaration was a declaration issued by the governments of the Commonwealth of Nations on the issue of India's continued membership of the Commonwealth. It was made in London on April 28, 1949, and marked the birth of the modern Commonwealth. The declaration had two main provisions. First, it allowed the Commonwealth to admit and retain, the word "British" was dropped from the title of the Commonwealth to reflect its changing nature.[8] Burma Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar, is the largest country by geographical area in Indochina . The country is bordered by People's Republic of China on the north-east, Laos on the east, Thailand on the south-east, Bangladesh on the west, India on the north-west and the Bay of Bengal to the south-west with the Andaman Sea defining its southern (also known as Myanmar Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar, is the largest country by geographical area in Indochina . The country is bordered by People's Republic of China on the north-east, Laos on the east, Thailand on the south-east, Bangladesh on the west, India on the north-west and the Bay of Bengal to the south-west with the Andaman Sea defining its southern, 1948), and Aden Aden is a seaport city in Yemen, located by the eastern approach to the Red Sea (the Gulf of Aden), some 170 kilometres east of Bab-el-Mandeb. Its population is approximately 800,000. Aden's ancient, natural harbour lies in the crater of an extinct volcano which now forms a peninsula, joined to the mainland by a low isthmus. This harbour, Front (1967) are the only states that were British colonies at the time of the war not to have joined the Commonwealth upon post-war independence. Among the former British protectorates A protectorate, in international law, is an autonomous territory that is protected diplomatically or militarily against third parties by a stronger state or entity. In exchange for this, the protectorate usually accepts specified obligations, which may vary greatly, depending on the real nature of their relationship. However, it retains sufficient and mandates A League of Nations mandate refers to a legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I, or the legal instruments that contained the terms for administering the territory on behalf of the League. These were of the nature of a treaty or convention and contained minority rights, those that never became members of the Commonwealth are Egypt Egypt (pronounced /ˈiːdʒɪpt/ ; Arabic: مصر‎ Miṣr, pronounced [misˤɾ] ( listen); Arabic: مِصْر Miṣr [ˈmisˤɾ]; Egyptian Arabic: مَصْر Maṣr [ˈmɑsˤɾ]; Coptic: Ⲭⲏⲙⲓ, kīmi; Egyptian: 𓆎𓅓𓏏𓊖 Kemet), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country mainly in North Africa, with the Sinai Peninsula (independent in 1922), Iraq Iraq , officially the Republic of Iraq (Arabic: جمهورية العراق (help·info) Jumhūrīyat Al-Irāq, Kurdish: كؤماری عه‌راق‎, Komara Îraqê, Assyrian Neo-Aramaic: ܥܸܪܵܩ) is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the (1932), Transjordan The Emirate of Transjordan was a former Ottoman territory incorporated into the British Mandate of Palestine in 1921 as an autonomous political division under as-Sharif Abdullah bin al-Husayn. This move was formalized by the addition of an August 1922 clause to the charter governing the Mandate for Palestine. Transjordan was geographically (1946), Palestine (most of which became the state of Israel in 1948), Sudan (1956), British Somaliland (which became part of Somalia in 1960, although it has since declared itself independent as Somaliland), Kuwait (1961), Bahrain (1971), Oman (1971), Qatar (1971), and the United Arab Emirates (1971).

Members with heads of state other than the Sovereign

The issue of countries with constitutional structures not based on a shared Crown but that wanted to remain members of the Commonwealth, came to a head in 1948 with passage of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948, in which Ireland renounced the sovereignty of the Crown[9] and thus left the Commonwealth. However, the Ireland Act 1949 passed by the Parliament of Westminster gave citizens of the Republic of Ireland a status similar to that of citizens of the Commonwealth in UK law. The issue was resolved in April 1949 at a Commonwealth prime ministers' meeting in London. Under this London Declaration, India agreed that, when it became a republic, in January 1950, it would accept the British Sovereign as a "symbol of the free association of its independent member nations and, as such, Head of the Commonwealth".

The other Commonwealth countries in turn recognised India's continuing membership of the association. At Pakistan's insistence, India was not regarded as an exceptional case and it was assumed that other states would be accorded the same treatment as India.

The London Declaration is often seen as marking the beginning of the modern Commonwealth. Following India's precedent, other nations became republics, or constitutional monarchies with their own monarchs, while some countries retained the same monarch as the United Kingdom, but their monarchies developed differently and soon became fully independent of the British monarchy. The monarch of each Commonwealth realm, whilst the same person, is regarded as a separate legal personality for each realm.

New Commonwealth

As the Commonwealth grew, Britain and the pre-1945 dominions became informally known as the "Old Commonwealth", and planners in the interwar period, like Lord Davies, who had also taken "a prominent part in building up the League of Nations Union" in the United Kingdom, in 1932 founded the New Commonwealth Movement, of which Winston Churchill was the president.[citation needed] The New Commonwealth was a society aimed at creation of an international air force to be the arm of the League of Nations, to allow nations to disarm and safeguard the peace. Some of these ideas were reflected in the United Nations Charter, drafted in Dumbarton Oaks (21 August to 7 October 1944) and San Francisco (25 April to 26 June 1945).[citation needed]

After the war, particularly since the 1960s when some of the Commonwealth countries disagreed with poorer, African and Asian (or New Commonwealth) members about various issues at Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings.[citation needed] Accusations that the old, "White" Commonwealth had different interests from African Commonwealth nations in particular, and charges of racism and colonialism, arose during heated debates about Rhodesia in the 1960s and 1970s, the imposition of sanctions against apartheid-era South Africa in the 1980s and, more recently, about whether to press for democratic reforms in Nigeria and then Zimbabwe.[citation needed]

The term "New Commonwealth" has also sometimes been used in the United Kingdom (especially in the 1960s and 1970s) to refer to recently decolonised countries, which are predominantly non-white and developing. It was often used in debates about immigration from these countries.[10]

Objectives and activities

The Commonwealth's objectives were first outlined in the 1971 Singapore Declaration, which committed the Commonwealth to the institution of world peace; promotion of representative democracy and individual liberty; the pursuit of equality and opposition to racism; the fight against poverty, ignorance, and disease; and free trade.[2] To these were added opposition to discrimination on the basis of gender by the Lusaka Declaration of 1979 (which mostly concerned racism),[11] and environmental sustainability by the Langkawi Declaration of 1989.[12] These objectives were reinforced by the Harare Declaration in 1991.

The Commonwealth's current highest-priority aims are on the promotion of democracy and development, as outlined in the 2003 Aso Rock Declaration,[13] which built on those in Singapore and Harare and clarified their terms of reference, stating, "We are committed to democracy, good governance, human rights, gender equality, and a more equitable sharing of the benefits of globalisation."[14] The Commonwealth website lists its areas of work as: Democracy, Economics, Education, Gender, Governance, Human Rights, Law, Small States, Sport, Sustainability, and Youth.[15]

The Commonwealth has long been distinctive as an international forum where highly developed economies (such as the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Singapore, and New Zealand) and many of the world's poorer countries seek to reach agreement by consensus. This aim has sometimes been difficult to achieve, as when disagreements over Rhodesia in the late 1960s and 1970s and over apartheid in South Africa in the 1980s led to a cooling of relations between the United Kingdom and African members.

Through a separate voluntary fund, Commonwealth governments support the Commonwealth Youth Programme, a division of the Secretariat with offices in Gulu (Uganda), Lusaka (Zambia), Chandigarh (India), Georgetown (Guyana) and Honiara (Solomon Islands).

Structure

Head of the Commonwealth

Main article: Head of the Commonwealth Queen Elizabeth II, current Head of the Commonwealth

Under the formula of the London Declaration, Queen Elizabeth II is the Head of the Commonwealth, a title that is currently individually shared with that of Commonwealth realms.[16] However, when the monarch dies, the successor to the crown does not automatically become Head of the Commonwealth.[17] The position is symbolic: representing the free association of independent members.[16] Sixteen members of the Commonwealth, known as Commonwealth realms, recognise the Queen as their head of state. The majority of members, thirty-three, are republics, and a further five have monarchs of different royal houses.

Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting

Main article: Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting

The main decision-making forum of the organisation is the biennial Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM), where Commonwealth Heads of Government, including (amongst others) Prime Ministers and Presidents, assemble for several days to discuss matters of mutual interest. CHOGM is the successor to the Meetings of Commonwealth Prime Ministers and earlier Imperial Conferences and Colonial Conferences dating back to 1887. There are also regular meetings of finance ministers, law ministers, health ministers, etc. Members in Arrears, as Special Members before them, are not invited to send representatives to either ministerial meetings or CHOGMs.[16]

The head of government hosting the Head of Government Meeting is called the Commonwealth Chairperson-in-Office, and retains the position until the following CHOGM.[18]

Commonwealth Secretariat

Main article: Commonwealth Secretariat Marlborough House, in London, is the headquarters of the Commonwealth Secretariat, which is the main intergovernmental institution of the Commonwealth.

The Commonwealth Secretariat, established in 1965, is the main intergovernmental agency of the Commonwealth, facilitating consultation and cooperation among member governments and countries. It is responsible to member governments collectively. The Commonwealth of Nations is represented in the United Nations General Assembly by the Secretariat, as an observer.

Based in London, the Secretariat organises Commonwealth summits, meetings of ministers, consultative meetings and technical discussions; it assists policy development and provides policy advice, and facilitates multilateral communication among the member governments. It also provides technical assistance to help governments in the social and economic development of their countries and in support of the Commonwealth's fundamental political values.

The Secretariat is headed by the Commonwealth Secretary-General who is elected by Commonwealth Heads of Government for no more than two four-year terms. The Secretary-General and two Deputy Secretaries-General direct the divisions of the Secretariat. The present Secretary-General is Kamalesh Sharma, from India, who took office on 1 April 2008, succeeding Don McKinnon of New Zealand (2000–2008). The first Secretary-General was Arnold Smith of Canada (1965–75), followed by Sir Shridath Ramphal of Guyana (1975–90).

Membership

Membership criteria

Main article: Commonwealth of Nations membership criteria

The criteria for membership of the Commonwealth of Nations have developed over time from a series of separate documents. The Statute of Westminster 1931, as a fundamental founding document of the organisation, laid out that membership required dominionhood. The 1949 London Declaration ended this, allowing republican and indigenous monarchic members on the condition that they recognised the British monarch as the "Head of the Commonwealth".[19] In the wake of the wave of decolonisation in the 1960s, these constitutional principles were augmented by political, economic, and social principles. The first of these was set out in 1961, when it was decided that respect for racial equality would be a requisite of membership, leading directly to the withdrawal of South Africa's re-application (which they were required to make under the formula of the London Declaration upon becoming a republic). The fourteen points of the 1971 Singapore Declaration dedicated all members to the principles of world peace, liberty, human rights, equality, and free trade.[2]

These criteria were unenforceable for two decades,[20] until, in 1991, the Harare Declaration was issued, dedicating the leaders to applying the Singapore principles to the completion of decolonisation, the end of the Cold War, and the fall of Apartheid in South Africa.[21] The mechanisms by which these principles would be applied were created, and the manner clarified, by the 1995 Millbrook Commonwealth Action Programme, which created the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which has the power to rule on whether members meet the requirements for membership under the Harare Declaration.[22] Also in 1995, an Inter-Governmental Group was created to finalise and codify the full requirements for membership. Upon reporting in 1997, as adopted under the Edinburgh Declaration, the Inter-Governmental Group ruled that any future members would have to have a direct constitutional link with an existing member.[23]

In addition to this new rule, the former rules were consolidated into a single document. These requirements, which remain the same today, are that members must: accept and comply with the Harare principles, be fully sovereign states, recognise the monarch of the Commonwealth realms as the Head of the Commonwealth, accept the English language as the means of Commonwealth communication, and respect the wishes of the general population with regard to Commonwealth membership.[23] These requirements had undergone review, and a report on potential amendments was presented by the Committee on Commonwealth Membership at the 2007 Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting.[24] New members were not admitted at this meeting, though applications for admission were considered at the 2009 CHOGM.[25]

Members

Main article: List of members of the Commonwealth of Nations Flags of the members of the Commonwealth in Horse Guards Road, next to the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, London

The Commonwealth comprises fifty-four of the world's countries (including one currently suspended member), across all six inhabited continents. The members have a combined population of 2.1 billion people, almost a third of the world population, of which 1.17 billion live in India and 94% live in Asia and Africa combined.[26] After India, the next-largest Commonwealth countries by population are Pakistan (176 million), Bangladesh (156 million), Nigeria (154 million), the United Kingdom (61 million) and South Africa (49 million). Nauru is the smallest member, with about 10,000 people.[27]

The land area of the Commonwealth nations is about 31,500,000 km2 (12,200,000 sq mi), or about 21% of the total world land area. The three largest Commonwealth nations by area are Canada at 10,000,000 km2 (3,900,000 sq mi), Australia at 7,700,000 km2 (2,970,000 sq mi), and India at 3,300,000 km2 (1,270,000 sq mi).[28] The Commonwealth members have a combined gross domestic product (measured in purchasing power parity) of $10.6 trillion, 66% of which is accounted for by the four largest economies: India ($3.3 trillion), the United Kingdom ($2.3 trillion), Canada ($1.3 trillion), and Australia ($800 billion).[29]

The status of "Member in Arrears" is used to denote those that are in arrears in paying subscription dues to the Commonwealth. The status was originally known as "special membership", but was renamed on the Committee on Commonwealth Membership's recommendation.[30] Currently, there is one Member in Arrears: Nauru. Nauru joined as a special member, but was a full member from 1 May 1999[31] to January 2006, when it reverted.[32]

New members must "as a general rule" have a direct constitutional link to an existing member. In most cases, the existing member is a former colony of the United Kingdom, but some have links to other countries, either exclusively or more directly (e.g. Samoa to New Zealand, Papua New Guinea to Australia, and Namibia to South Africa). The first member to be admitted without having any constitutional link to the British Empire or a Commonwealth member was Mozambique, a former Portuguese colony. It was admitted in 1995 following its first democratic elections and South Africa's re-admission in 1994. Mozambique's controversial entry led to the Edinburgh Declaration and the current membership guidelines.[33] In 2009, Rwanda became the second Commonwealth member admitted to not have any such constitutional links. It was formerly a Belgian trust territory that had been a German colony until World War I.[34] Consideration for its admission was considered an "exceptional circumstance" by the Commonwealth Secretariat.[33]

Applicants

See also: Commonwealth of Nations membership criteria#Prospective members

Sudan, Algeria, Madagascar and Yemen have applied to join the Commonwealth. Of these four, Madagascar and Algeria were never British colonies or possessions.[25] In 2006, Commonwealth Secretary-General Don McKinnon said Israel and Palestine could join the commonwealth.[35]

Other eligible applicants could come from any of the remaining inhabited British overseas territories, Crown dependencies, Australian external territories and Associated States of New Zealand if any become fully independent.[36] Many such jurisdictions are already directly represented within the Commonwealth, particularly through the Commonwealth Family.[37]

France secretly considered membership in the 1950s, under the leadership of Prime Minister Guy Mollet. In the context of nationalisation of the Suez Canal, colonial unrest, and increasing tensions between British-backed Jordan and French-backed Israel, Mollet saw a union between Britain and France as a possible solution. A British Government document of the time reported, "The French would welcome a common citizenship arrangement on the Irish basis." The request was turned down by the British prime minister Anthony Eden, along with a request for Commonwealth membership, and a year later France signed the Treaty of Rome with West Germany and the other founding nations of the Common Market, later to become the EU (which the UK and Ireland joined in 1973, Malta and Cyprus in 2004) .[38][39]

Suspension

Main article: Suspension from the Commonwealth of Nations

In recent years, the Commonwealth has suspended several members "from the Councils of the Commonwealth" for "serious or persistent violations" of the Harare Declaration, particularly in abrogating their responsibility to have democratic government.[40] This is done by the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group (CMAG), which meets regularly to address potential breaches of the Harare Declaration. Suspended members are not represented at meetings of Commonwealth leaders and ministers, although they remain members of the organisation. Currently, there is one suspended member: Fiji.[41]

Nigeria was suspended between 11 November 1995 and 29 May 1999,[42] following its execution of Ken Saro-Wiwa on the eve of the 1995 CHOGM.[43] Pakistan was the second country to be suspended, on 18 October 1999 following a military coup by Pervez Musharraf.[44] The Commonwealth's longest suspension came to an end on 22 May 2004, when Pakistan's suspension was lifted following the restoration of the country's constitution.[45] Pakistan was suspended for a second time, far more briefly, for six months from 22 November 2007, when Musharraf called a state of emergency.[46] Zimbabwe was suspended in 2002 over concerns with the electoral and land reform policies of Robert Mugabe's ZANU-PF government,[47] before Zimbabwe withdrew from the organisation in 2003.[48]

Wikinews has related news: Fiji fully suspended from the Commonwealth after failure to call election

Fiji, which was not a member of the Commonwealth between 1987 and 1997 as a result of a pair of coups d'état, has also been suspended twice, with the first suspension being imposed from 6 June 2000[49] to 20 December 2001 after another coup.[47] Fiji has been suspended once again, since 8 December 2006, following the most recent coup, this suspension only applying to membership on the Councils of the Commonwealth.[50][51] After failing to meet a Commonwealth deadline for setting national elections by 2010, Fiji was "fully suspended" on 1 September 2009.[50][51] The Secretary-General of the Commonwealth, Kamalesh Sharma, confirmed that full suspension meant that Fiji would be excluded from Commonwealth meetings, sporting events, and the technical assistance programme (with an exception for assistance in re-establishing democracy).[51] Sharma also stated that Fiji would remain a member of the Commonwealth during its suspension, but would be excluded from emblematic representation by the secretariat.[51]

Termination of membership

As membership is purely voluntary, member governments can choose at any time to leave the Commonwealth. Pakistan left on 30 January 1972 in protest at the Commonwealth's recognition of breakaway Bangladesh, but rejoined on 2 August 1989. Zimbabwe left in 2003 when the Commonwealth heads of government refused to lift the country's suspension on the grounds of alleged human rights violations and deliberate misgovernment.

Although heads of government have the power to suspend member states from active participation, the Commonwealth has no provision for the expulsion of members. Until 2007, Commonwealth realms that became republics automatically ceased to be members, until (like India in 1950) they obtained the permission of other members to remain in the organisation. This policy has been changed, so if any current Commonwealth realms were to become republics, they would not have to go through this process.[52] The Irish Free State left the Commonwealth when it declared itself a republic, on 18 April 1949, after passing the Republic of Ireland Act 1948.

South Africa was prevented from continuing as a member after it became a republic in 1961, due to hostility from many members, particularly those in Africa and Asia as well as Canada, to its policy of apartheid. The South African government withdrew its application to remain in the organisation as a republic when it became clear at the 1961 Meeting of Commonwealth Prime Ministers that any such application would be rejected. South Africa was re-admitted to the Commonwealth in 1994, following the end of apartheid earlier that same year.

The declaration of a republic in Fiji in 1987, after military coups designed to deny Indo-Fijians political power there, was not accompanied by an application to remain. Commonwealth membership was held to have lapsed until 1997, after discriminatory provisions in the republican constitution were repealed and reapplication for membership made.[51][53]

Commonwealth Family

Main article: Commonwealth Family

Commonwealth countries share many links outside government, with over a hundred Commonwealth-wide non-governmental organisations, notably for sport, culture, education and charity. The Association of Commonwealth Universities is an important vehicle for academic links, particularly through scholarships, principally the Commonwealth Scholarship, for students to study in universities in other Commonwealth countries. There are also many non-official associations that bring together individuals who work within the spheres of law and government, such as the Commonwealth Lawyers Association and the Commonwealth Parliamentary Association.

Commonwealth Foundation

Main article: Commonwealth Foundation

The Commonwealth Foundation is an intergovernmental organisation, resourced by and reporting to Commonwealth governments, and guided by Commonwealth values and priorities. Its mandate is to strengthen civil society in the achievement of Commonwealth priorities: democracy and good governance, respect for human rights and gender equality, poverty eradication and sustainable, people-centred and sustainable development, and to promote arts and culture.

The Foundation was established by the Heads of Government in 1965. Admittance is open to all members of the Commonwealth and (as of December 2008) stands at 46 governments out of the 54 member countries. Associate Membership, which is open to associated states or overseas territories of member governments, has been granted to Gibraltar. The year 2005 saw celebrations for the Foundation's 40th Anniversary. The Foundation is headquartered in Marlborough House, Pall Mall, London. Regular liaison and cooperation between the Secretariat and the Foundation is in place.

The Foundation continues to serve the broad purposes for which it was established as written in the Memorandum of Understanding:[54]

Commonwealth Games

Main article: Commonwealth Games The Commonwealth Games are the third-largest multi-sport event in the world, bringing together globally-popular sports and peculiarly "Commonwealth" sports, such as rugby sevens, shown here at the 2006 Games.

A multi-sport championship called the Commonwealth Games is held every four years; the most recent having been held in Melbourne, Australia, in 2006, and the next due to be held in New Delhi, India, in 2010. As well as the usual athletic disciplines, as at the Summer Olympic Games, the Games include sports particularly popular in the Commonwealth, such as bowls, netball, and rugby sevens. Starting in 1930, the Games were founded on the Olympic model of amateurism, but were deliberately designed to be, as they are still renowned for being "the Friendly Games",[3] with the goal of promoting relations between Commonwealth countries and celebrating their shared sporting and cultural heritage.[55]

The Games are the Commonwealth's most visible activity,[3] and interest in the operation of the Commonwealth increases greatly when the Games are held.[56] There is controversy over whether the Games, and sport generally, should be involved in the Commonwealth's wider political concerns.[55] The 1977 Gleneagles Agreement was signed to commit Commonwealth countries to combat Apartheid through discouraging sporting contact with South Africa (which was not then a member), whilst the 1986 Games were boycotted by most African, Asian, and Caribbean countries for failure of other countries to enforce the Gleneagles Agreement.[57]

Commonwealth War Graves Commission

Main article: Commonwealth War Graves Commission The Commonwealth War Graves Commission maintains 2,500 war cemeteries around the world, including this one in Gallipoli, and commemorates 1.7m Commonwealth war dead in total.

The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) is responsible for maintaining the war graves of 1.7 million service personnel that died in the First World War and Second World War fighting for Commonwealth member states. Founded in 1917, the Commission has expanded to construct 2,500 war cemeteries, and maintains individual graves at another 20,000 sites around the world.[58] The vast majority of the latter are civilian cemeteries in the United Kingdom. In 1998, the CWGC made the records of its buried online to facilitate easier searching.[59]

Commonwealth war cemeteries often feature similar horticulture and architecture, with larger cemeteries being home to a Cross of Sacrifice and Stone of Remembrance. The CWGC was notable when first founded for marking the graves identically, regardless of the rank, country of origin, race, or religion of the buried.[59] It is funded by voluntary agreement by six Commonwealth members, in proportion to the nationality of the casualties in the graves maintained,[58] with three-quarters of the funding coming from the UK.[59]

Commonwealth of Learning

Main article: Commonwealth of Learning

The Commonwealth of Learning (COL) is an intergovernmental organisation created by the Heads of Government to encourage the development and sharing of open learning/distance education knowledge, resources and technologies. COL is helping developing nations improve access to quality education and training.

Commonwealth Business Council

Main article: Commonwealth Business Council

The Commonwealth Business Council (CBC) was formed at 1997 CHOGM. The aim was to utilise the global network of the Commonwealth more effectively for the promotion of global trade and investment for shared prosperity.

The CBC acts as a bridge for co-operation between business and government, concentrating efforts on these specific areas enhancing trade, facilitating ICT for Development, mobilising investment, promoting corporate citizenship, and Public Private Partnerships. The CBC has a dedicated team, CBC Technologies, based in London and is focused on the international technology and global services industry throughout the Commonwealth.

Culture

Mostly due to their history of British rule, many Commonwealth nations possess certain identifiable traditions and customs that are elements of a shared Commonwealth culture. Examples include common sports such as cricket and rugby, driving on the left, the Westminster system of parliamentary democracy, common law, widespread use of the English language, designation of English as an official language, military and naval ranks, and the use of British rather than American spelling conventions (see English in the Commonwealth of Nations). None of these is universal amongst, nor exclusive to, the Commonwealth, but are more commonly found within its members than elsewhere.

Sport

Due to the legacy of British colonial rule, many Commonwealth nations play similar sports that are considered quintessentially "Commonwealth" in character, including cricket, both codes of rugby, and netball.[4] This has led to the development of friendly national rivalries between the main sporting nations that have often defined their relations with each another. Indeed, said rivalries preserved close ties by providing a constant in international relationships, even as the Empire transformed into the Commonwealth.[60] Externally, playing these sports is seen to be a sign of sharing a certain Commonwealth culture; the adoption of cricket at schools in Rwanda is seen as symbolic of the country's move towards Commonwealth membership.[61][62]

Besides the Commonwealth Games, a number of other sporting competitions are organised on a Commonwealth basis, through championship tournaments such as the Commonwealth Judo Championships, Commonwealth Rowing Championships, Commonwealth Sailing Championships, and Commonwealth Shooting Championships. The Commonwealth Boxing Council has long maintained Commonwealth titles for the best boxers in the Commonwealth.

Literature

The shared history of British presence has also produced a substantial body of writing in many languages, known as Commonwealth literature.[63][64] There is an Association for Commonwealth Literature and Language Studies, with nine chapters worldwide and an international conference is held every three years.

In 1987, the Commonwealth Foundation established the annual Commonwealth Writers' Prize "to encourage and reward the upsurge of new Commonwealth fiction and ensure that works of merit reach a wider audience outside their country of origin". Prizes are awarded for the best book and best first book in the Commonwealth, as well as regional prizes for the best book and best first book from each of four regions. Although not officially affiliated with the Commonwealth, the prestigious Man Booker Prize is awarded annually to an author from a Commonwealth country or the two former members, the Republic of Ireland and Zimbabwe. This honour is one of the highest in literature.[65]

Political system

Due to their shared constitutional histories, most countries in the Commonwealth have similar legal and political systems. The Commonwealth requires its members to be functioning democracies that respect human rights and the rule of law. Half of Commonwealth countries have the Westminster system of parliamentary democracy. The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association facilitates cooperation between legislatures across the Commonwealth, and the Commonwealth Local Government Forum promotes good governance amongst local government officials.

Most Commonwealth members use common law, modelled on English law. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is the supreme court of fourteen Commonwealth members.

Symbols

Main article: Symbols of the Commonwealth of Nations

The Commonwealth has adopted a number of symbols that represent the association of its members. Elizabeth II holds the position of Head of the Commonwealth as a symbol of the Commonwealth's free association, dating back to the London Declaration, issued in 28 April 1949. The English language is recognised as a symbol of the members' heritage; as well as being considered a symbol of the Commonwealth, recognition of it as "the means of Commonwealth communication" is a prerequisite for Commonwealth membership.

The flag of the Commonwealth consists of the symbol of the Commonwealth Secretariat, represented by a gold globe surrounded by emanating "rays", on a dark blue field; it was designed for the second CHOGM, in 1973, and officially adopted on the 26 March 1976. 1976 also saw the organisation agree to a common date on which to commemorate Commonwealth Day, the second Monday in March, having developed separately on different dates from pre-existing Empire Day celebrations.

Commonwealth citizenship

Main article: Commonwealth citizen

In recognition of their shared heritage and culture, Commonwealth countries are not considered to be "foreign" to each other.[5][66][67] When engaging bilaterally with one another, Commonwealth governments exchange High Commissioners instead of ambassadors. Between two Commonwealth realms, they represent the Head of Government rather than the Head of State.

In addition, some members treat resident citizens of other Commonwealth countries preferentially to citizens of non-Commonwealth countries. The United Kingdom and several others, mostly in the Caribbean, grant the right to vote to Commonwealth citizens who reside in those countries. In non-Commonwealth countries in which their own country is not represented, Commonwealth citizens may seek consular assistance at the United Kingdom embassy.

Similar organisations

In recent years the Commonwealth model has inspired similar initiatives on the part of France, Spain and Portugal and their respective ex-colonies, and in the former case, other sympathetic governments: the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie (International Organisation of Francophone Countries), the Comunidad Iberoamericana de Naciones (Organization of Ibero-American States) and the Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa (Community of Portuguese Language Countries). The Arab League, an association similar to the Commonwealth, was founded in 1945 and whose members and observers (except observer state India) use Arabic as an official language.

See also

Commonwealth portal

Footnotes

  1. ^ "FAQs". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/FAQs/20706/faqs/. Retrieved 2007-07-25.
  2. ^ a b c "Singapore Declaration of Commonwealth Principles 1971". Commonwealth Secretariat. 22 January 1971. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/20723/32987/singapore_declaration_of_commonwealth_principles/. Retrieved 2007-07-25.
  3. ^ a b c McKinnon, Don (February 2008). "A Commonwealth of Values: a Commonwealth of incomparable value". The Round Table 97 (394): pp. 19–28. doi:10.1080/00358530801890561.
  4. ^ a b Harold, Perkin (September 1989). "Teaching the nations how to play: sport and society in the British Empire and Commonwealth". International Journal of the History of Sport 6 (2): pp. 145–155. doi:10.1080/09523368908713685.
  5. ^ a b Dale, William (July 1982). "Is the Commonwealth an International Organisation?". International and Comparative Law Quarterly 31 (3): 451–73.
  6. ^ http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/191086/34493/history/
  7. ^ "History of the Commonwealth". http://www.chogm99.org/what/history1.htm.
  8. ^ Modern Commonwealth turns 60
  9. ^ Section 1 of the Republic of Ireland Act 1948.
  10. ^ Blair calls for quotas on immigrants from 'New Commonwealth', Telegraph, June 5, 2004
  11. ^ "Lusaka Declaration on Racism and Racial Prejudice". Commonwealth Secretariat. 7 August 1979. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/document/34293/35468/35776/lusaka.htm. Retrieved 2008-04-03.
  12. ^ "Langkawi Declaration on the Environment". USM Regional Center of Expertise in Education for Sustainable Development. 21 October 1989. http://www.greenpages.net.my/node/4. Retrieved 2008-04-03.
  13. ^ "Our Work". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/150952/our_work/. Retrieved 2008-04-03.
  14. ^ "Aso Rock Commonwealth Declaration" (PDF). Commonwealth Secretariat. 8 December 2003. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/shared_asp_files/uploadedfiles/%7BE7A2A23D-FD9F-418B-B2D4-CC39FFD2FEF2%7D_Aso%20Rock%20Declaration.pdf. Retrieved 2008-04-03.
  15. ^ "Commonwealth Secretariat". Commonwealth Secretariat. 7 August 1979. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/. Retrieved 2008-04-03.
  16. ^ a b c Patterson, Percival (24 October 2007). "Report of the Committee on Commonwealth Membership". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/shared_asp_files/GFSR.asp?NodeID=174532. Retrieved 2008-06-29.
  17. ^ "Head of the Commonwealth". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/150757/head_of_the_commonwealth/. Retrieved 2008-06-29.
  18. ^ "The Commonwealth at and immediately after the Coolum CHOGM". The Round Table 91 (364): pp. 125–9. April 2002. doi:10.1080/00358530220144139.
  19. ^ de Smith, S.A. (July 1949). "The London Declaration of the Commonwealth Prime Ministers, 28 April 1949". The Modern Law Review 12 (3): pp. 351–4. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-7961%28194907%2912%3A3%3C351%3ATLDOTC%3E2.0.CO%3B2-I. Retrieved 2007-07-22.
  20. ^ Williams, Paul D. (July 2005). "Blair's Britain and the Commonwealth". The Round Table 94 (380): pp. 381–391. doi:10.1080/00358530500174960.
  21. ^ . Commonwealth Secretariat. 20 October 1991. . Retrieved 2007-07-29.
  22. ^ "Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group". Commonwealth Secretariat. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Internal/38125/cmag/. Retrieved 2007-07-29.
  23. ^ a b te Velde-Ashworth, Victoria (10 October 2005). "The future of the modern Commonwealth: Widening vs. deepening?" (PDF). Commonwealth Policy Studies Unit. http://www.cpsu.org.uk/downloads/future_aide.pdf. Retrieved 2007-07-29.
  24. ^ "Commonwealth membership in focus at London meeting". Commonwealth Secretariat. 6 December 2006. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/news/157526/commonwealth_membership_in_focus_at_london_meeting.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-29.
  25. ^ a b Osike, Felix (24 November 2007). "Rwanda membership delayed". New Vision. http://www.sundayvision.co.ug/detail.php?mainNewsCategoryId=7&newsCategoryId=123&newsId=598876. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
  26. ^ "Country Comparisons - Population". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 19 March 2009. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html. Retrieved 2009-03-22.
  27. ^ "Nauru: Key Facts". Commonwealth Secretariat. 19 March 2009. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookHomeInternal/138866/home/. Retrieved 21 January 2010.
  28. ^ "Country Comparisons - Area". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 19 March 2009. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html. Retrieved 2009-03-22.
  29. ^ "Country Comparisons - GDP (purchasing power parity)". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 19 March 2009. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html. Retrieved 2009-03-22.
  30. ^ McIntyre, W. David (April 2008). "The Expansion of the Commonwealth and the Criteria for Membership". Round Table 97 (395): 273–85. doi:10.1080/00358530801962089.
  31. ^ "Nauru Accedes to Full Membership of the Commonwealth". Commonwealth Secretariat. 12 April 1999. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/press/31555/34582/34786/nauru_accedes_to_full_membership_of_the_commonweal.htm. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
  32. ^ Special Member status
  33. ^ a b "Rwanda: Joining the Commonwealth". The New Times (AllAfrica). 27 November 2009.
  34. ^ Kron, Josh (28 November 2009). "Rwanda Joins British Commonwealth". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/29/world/africa/29rwanda.html. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
  35. ^ Alderson, Andrew (17 December 2006). "Israelis and Palestinians could join Commonwealth". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1537176/Israelis-and-Palestinians-could-join-Commonwealth.html. Retrieved 29 November 2009.
  36. ^ Eligible Areas
  37. ^ Baldacchino, Godfrey; Milne, David (September 2006). "Exploring sub-national island jurisdictions: An editorial introduction". The Round Table 95 (386): pp. 487–502. doi:10.1080/00358530600929735.
  38. ^ "France and UK considered 1950s 'merger'". The Guardian (London). 15 January 2007. http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,,1990795,00.html. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
  39. ^ News release from The National Archives
  40. ^ Colvile, Robert (July 2004). "A Place to Stand: the Problems and Potential of the Commonwealth Ministerial Action Group". The Round Table 93 (375): pp. 343–53. doi:10.1080/0035853042000249942.
  41. ^ Gruenbaum, Oren (December 2009). "Commonwealth Update". The Round Table 98 (405): pp. 639–53. doi:10.1080/00358530903474702. http://www.moot.org.uk/pdf/comm_update_405.asp.
  42. ^ Ingram, Derek (October 1999). "Commonwealth Update". The Round Table 88 (352): pp. 547–567. doi:10.1080/003585399107758.
  43. ^ Ingram, Derek (October 2007). "Twenty Commonwealth steps from Singapore to Kampala". The Round Table 96 (392): pp. 555–563. doi:10.1080/00358530701625877.
  44. ^ Ingram, Derek (January 2000). "Commonwealth Update". The Round Table 89 (353): pp. 45–57. doi:10.1080/750459452.
  45. ^ Ingram, Derek (July 2004). "Commonwealth Update". The Round Table 93 (375): pp. 311–42. doi:10.1080/0035853042000249933.
  46. ^ Gruenbaum, Oren (February 2008). "Commonwealth Update". The Round Table 97 (394): pp. 3–17. doi:10.1080/00358530701864963.
  47. ^ a b Ingram, Derek (April 2002). "Commonwealth Update". The Round Table 91 (364): pp. 131–59. doi:10.1080/00358530220144148.
  48. ^ "Editorial: CHOGM 2003, Abuja, Nigeria". The Round Table 93 (373): pp. 3–6. January 2004. doi:10.1080/0035853042000188139.
  49. ^ Ingram, Derek (July 2000). "Commonwealth Update". The Round Table 89 (355): pp. 311–55. doi:10.1080/00358530050083406.
  50. ^ a b "Fiji suspended from Commonwealth". BBC News. 8 December 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6161587.stm. Retrieved 1 February 2009.
  51. ^ a b c d e "Fiji Suspended from the Commonwealth". Commonwealth Secretariat. 1 September 209. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/news/34580/213088/010909fijisuspended.htm. Retrieved 1 September 2009.
  52. ^ "Membership of the Commonwealth: Report of the Committee on Commonwealth Membership". Commonwealth Secretariat. 2007. http://www.thecommonwealth.org/document/34293/35144/174531/membership_report.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-02.
  53. ^ . Commonwealth Secretariat. 30 September 1997. . Retrieved 1 September 2009.
  54. ^ Commonwealth Foundation - About Us, ¶4–5
  55. ^ a b "Commonwealth Games and Art Festival". The Round Table 91 (365): pp. 293–296. July 2002. doi:10.1080/0035853022000010308.
  56. ^ McDougall, Derek (July 2005). "Australia and the Commonwealth". The Round Table 94 (380): pp. 339–349. doi:10.1080/00358530500175033.
  57. ^ Muda, Muhammad (April 1998). "The significance of the Commonwealth Games in Malaysia's foreign policy". The Round Table 87 (346): pp. 211–226. doi:10.1080/00358539808454416.
  58. ^ a b Dare, Annie (15 October 2000). "Ten Key Things About War Graves". The Observer: p. 29.
  59. ^ a b c Binyon, Michael (22 January 1999). "Millions trace war dead on Internet". The Times: p. 3.
  60. ^ Michael, Dawson (February 2006). "Acting global, thinking local: 'Liquid imperialism' and the multiple meanings of the 1954 British Empire & Commonwealth Games". International Journal of the History of Sport 23 (1): pp. 3–27. doi:10.1080/09523360500386419.
  61. ^ Jonathan, Clayton (20 November 2007). "Schoolboy cricketers bat their way to a place in the Commonwealth". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article2903598.ece. Retrieved 27 March 2009.
  62. ^ Pflanz, Mike (24 July 2007). "Rwanda in drive to join Commonwealth". Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1558285/Rwanda-in-drive-to-join-Commonwealth.html. Retrieved 27 March 2009.
  63. ^ Hill, Douglas (1 October 1988). "A report on stories from the outposts of Commonwealth literature". The Globe and Mail: p. 21.
  64. ^ McCrum, Robert (13 October 2003). "English Is a World Language - and That's to Be Prized". The Los Angeles Times: p. B15.
  65. ^ Iyer, Pico (12 February 1993). "The Empire writes back". The Straits Times: p. 1.
  66. ^ Clute, Robert E.; Wilson, Robert R. (July 1958). "Commonwealth and Favored-Nation Usage". American Journal of International Law 52 (3): 455–68.
  67. ^ Hedley, Bull (July 1959). "What is the Commonwealth?". World Politics 11 (4): 577–87.

References

Further reading

External links

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Q. I'm curious where the concept of the "Commonwealth" comes from. Why commonwealth nations and is that an antiquated thing to say? Is this a socialist concept?
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A. I'd like to see you try suggesting that it's a socialist concept in Kentucky, where "The Commonwealth of Kentucky" is the official name of the state. Massachusetts, Pennsylvania and Virginia have similar official names. It is simply an old English word, dating from the 1400s, for a political community founded for the common good. When England was briefly a republic from 1649-60, it was known as the Commonwealth of England. The Commonwealth of Nations, otherwise known as just the Commonwealth, uses the name for the same reason, as it is simply a club of countries with common aims.
Answered by The Dark Side - Sun Apr 4 10:49:17 2010

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